Applied Metallurgy and Corrosion Control A Handbook for the Petrochemical Industry 1st Edition by Amiya Kumar Lahiri – Ebook PDF Instant Download/DeliveryISBN: 9811046841, 9789811046841
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ISBN-10 : 9811046841
ISBN-13 : 9789811046841
Author: Amiya Kumar Lahiri
This book serves as a comprehensive resource on metals and materials selection for the petrochemical industrial sector. The petrochemical industry involves large scale investments, and to maintain profitability the plants are to be operated with minimum downtime and failure of equipment, which can also cause safety hazards. To achieve this objective proper selection of materials, corrosion control, and good engineering practices must be followed in both the design and the operation of plants. Engineers and professional of different disciplines involved in these activities are required to have some basic understanding of metallurgy and corrosion. This book is written with the objective of servings as a one-stop shop for these engineering professionals. The book first covers different metallic materials and their properties, metal forming processes, welding, and corrosion and corrosion control measures. This is followed by considerations in material selection and corrosion control in three major industrial sectors, oil & gas production, oil refinery, and fertilizers. The importance of pressure vessel codes as well as inspection and maintenance repair practices have also been highlighted. The book will be useful for technicians and entry level engineers in these industrial sectors. Additionally, the book may also be used as primary or secondary reading for graduate and professional coursework.
Applied Metallurgy and Corrosion Control A Handbook for the Petrochemical Industry 1st table of contents:
1 Introduction
Abstract
1.1 Material Engineering
1.2 Considerations in Material Selection
1.2.1 Material Degradation
1.2.2 Mechanical and Physical Properties
1.2.3 Equipment Fabrication
1.2.4 Type of Equipment
1.2.5 Material Maintenance
1.2.6 Design Philosophy
1.3 Steps in Selection of Material
1.3.1 Steps in Material Selection
1.3.2 Design and Operational Considerations
1.4 Some Failure Examples
1.4.1 A Case of Correct MOC But Wrong Specification and Repair Procedure
1.4.2 Selection of Control Valve of Wrong Design
1.4.3 Catastrophic Failure Due to Inadequate Piping Stress Analysis
1.4.4 Capsize of Semi-submersible Offshore Platform Because of Poor Workmanship
1.4.5 Rupture of Pipe in Crude Distillation Unit Due to Wrong Specification
1.4.6 Failure of Thick Low Alloy Steel Vessel Due to Inadequate PWHT
References
2 Classification of Metallic Engineering Materials
Abstract
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Ferrous Materials
2.2.1 Cast Irons
2.2.1.1 Alloy Cast Irons
2.2.2 Plain Carbon Steels
2.2.3 Low and Medium Alloy Steels
2.2.4 High Alloy Steels
2.2.4.1 Wrought Austenitic, Ferritic and Martensitic Stainless Steels
2.2.4.2 Cast Stainless Steels
2.2.4.3 Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS)
2.2.4.4 High Performance Ferritic and Austenitic Stainless Steels
2.2.4.5 Comparison of Different Stainless Steels
2.3 Non-ferrous Materials
2.3.1 Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
2.3.2 Copper and Copper Alloys
2.3.3 Nickel and Nickel Alloys
2.3.4 Lead and Lead Alloys
2.3.5 Titanium and Titanium Alloys
2.3.6 Other Non-ferrous Metals
2.4 Unified Numbering System
2.5 Material Specification
2.5.1 Material Standard
2.5.2 Purpose of Specification
2.5.3 Preparation of Standards
2.5.3.1 Broad Coverage Under Specifications
2.5.4 Dual Certification
References
3 Production and Working of Metals and Alloys
Abstract
3.1 Metal Production
3.1.1 Metal Purification
3.2 Iron and Steel Making
3.2.1 Pig Iron
3.2.2 Conventional Steel Making
3.2.2.1 Basic Oxygen Process (BOP)
3.2.2.2 Electric Arc Furnace Steel Making
3.2.2.3 Deoxidation and Ladle Treatment of Steel
3.2.3 Modern Steel Making by Ladle Treatment
3.2.3.1 Desulfurization
3.2.3.2 Ladle Decarburization
3.2.3.3 Ladle Degassing
3.2.4 Summary
3.3 Ingot Casting and Forming
3.3.1 Conventional Casting
3.3.2 Continuous Casting
3.4 Shaping of Metal and Alloys
3.4.1 Casting
3.4.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Casting
3.4.1.2 Centrifugal Casting
3.4.2 Shaping by Mechanical Working
3.4.2.1 Workability
3.4.2.2 Surface Finish
3.4.3 Types of Forming Processes
3.4.3.1 Rolling
3.4.3.2 Extrusion
Cold Extrusion
Hot Extrusion
3.4.3.3 Forging
Closed Die Forging
Open-Die Forging
Cold Forging
Seamless Rolled Ring Forging
3.4.3.4 Manufacture of Pipes and Tubes
Fusion Welded Pipe
Spiral Welded Pipe
Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) Pipe
Seamless Pipe
Extrusion
UOE Process for Production of Pipe
3.4.3.5 Drawing
3.4.4 Production of Clad/Lined Material
3.4.4.1 Strip Lining
3.4.4.2 Roll Cladding
3.4.4.3 Weld Cladding
3.4.4.4 Explosion Cladding/Welding
Advantages and Disadvantages of Explosion Welding
3.4.5 Surface Defects of Worked Product
3.4.6 Forming of Plates
3.4.6.1 Cold Forming
3.4.6.2 Warm Forming
3.4.6.3 Hot Forming
3.4.6.4 Forming of Clad Plate
3.4.7 Cutting Operation
3.4.7.1 Oxy-flame Cutting
3.4.7.2 Plasma Cutting
3.4.7.3 Laser Cutting
3.4.7.4 Water Jet Cutting
References
4 Structure of Metals and Alloys
Abstract
4.1 Crystal Structure
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Structural Changes
4.2 Phase Diagram
4.2.1 Solid Solution
4.2.2 Grain Boundaries
4.2.3 Iron–Carbon Phase Diagram
4.2.4 Binary Iron Alloys
4.2.5 Ternary Phase Diagrams
References
5 Mechanical Behaviour of Metals and Alloys
Abstract
5.1 Mechanical Properties
5.1.1 Deformation
5.1.1.1 Deformation Mechanism
5.1.2 Strengthening Mechanisms
5.1.2.1 Solid Solution Strengthening
5.1.2.2 Grain Boundary Strengthening
5.1.2.3 Dispersion Strengthening
5.1.2.4 Work Hardening
5.1.3 Fracture Mode
5.1.4 Ductility of Material
5.1.4.1 Test Methods
5.1.4.2 Ductile to Brittle Transition
5.1.4.3 Practical Uses
5.1.5 Fracture Mechanics
5.1.6 Tensile Properties
5.1.7 Hardness
5.1.7.1 Field Hardness Tester
Advanced Field Hardness Testing Instruments
5.1.8 Fatigue
5.1.9 Creep
5.1.9.1 Effect of Alloying Elements
5.1.9.2 Creep Based Design
References
6 Heat Treatment
Abstract
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Heat Treatment of Ferritic Steels
6.2.1 Constant Temperature Transformation
6.2.1.1 Factors Affecting TTT Curves
6.2.2 Transformation on Continuous Cooling
6.2.3 Important Heat Treatment Processes
6.2.3.1 Annealing
Annealing Temperature and Time
Recrystallization
6.2.3.2 Normalizing
6.2.3.3 Quench Hardening
Hardenability
Tempering of Hardened Steel
Temper Embrittlement
6.2.3.4 Age Hardening
6.3 Surface Hardening
6.3.1 Carburizing
6.3.1.1 Heat Treatment After Carburizing
6.3.2 Nitriding
6.4 Heat Treatment of Stainless Steels
6.4.1 Austenitic Stainless Steels
6.4.1.1 Solution Heat Treatment
6.4.1.2 Stabilizing Heat Treatment
6.4.2 Duplex Stainless Steel (DSS)
6.5 Other Surface Treatment Processes
6.5.1 Shot Peening
6.5.2 Laser Peening
References
7 Metallurgical Aspects of Welding
Abstract
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Welding of Ferritic Steels
7.2.1 Structure of Weld Deposit
7.2.2 Cold Cracking
7.2.2.1 Carbon Equivalent
7.2.2.2 Prevention of Cold Cracking
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
Intermediate (IPWHT) and Low-Temperature Dehydrogenation Heat Treatment (LTDHT)
7.2.3 Stress-Relief Cracking
7.2.4 Other Methods of Reducing Weld Residual Stresses
7.2.4.1 Peening
7.2.4.2 Vibratory Stress Relief
7.2.5 Residual Stress Measurement in Weldments
7.2.6 Avoiding PWHT
7.2.6.1 Preheating Method
7.2.6.2 Temper Bead Welding
7.2.6.3 Buttering Technique
7.2.6.4 Friction Stitch and Seam Welding
7.3 Underwater Welding
7.4 Welding of Components Showing Magnetism
7.4.1 Causes for Magnetism of Plant Piping
7.4.2 Remedies for Magnetic Arc Blow
7.5 Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels
7.5.1 Weld Defects in Austenitic Stainless Steels
7.5.1.1 Role of Ferrite on Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel
7.5.1.2 Ferrite Number
HAZ Cracking
7.5.2 Selection of Filler Metal for Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels
7.6 Welding of Dissimilar Metals (DMW)
7.6.1 Considerations in DMW Welding
7.6.1.1 Ferritic to Ferritic Steel
7.6.1.2 Austenitic Stainless Steel to Ferritic Steel
7.7 Welding of Duplex Stainless Steels
7.8 Welding of Titanium
7.9 Corrosion of Weld
7.9.1 Austenitic Welds
7.9.2 Carbon Steel
References
8 Material Degradation
Abstract
8.1 Fundamentals of Aqueous Corrosion
8.1.1 Electrochemical Nature of Aqueous Corrosion
8.1.2 Thermodynamics of Aqueous Corrosion
8.1.3 Kinetics of Aqueous Corrosion
8.1.3.1 Polarization
8.1.3.2 Passivation
8.2 Forms of Corrosion
8.2.1 Uniform or General Corrosion
8.2.2 Galvanic Corrosion
8.2.2.1 Potential Difference
Resistivity of Medium
8.2.2.2 Area Effect
8.2.2.3 Cathodic Polarization Characteristics
Polarization Characteristics of Metal
Polarization Effect of Biofilm
8.2.2.4 Prevention of Galvanic Corrosion
8.2.3 Pitting Corrosion
8.2.3.1 Pitting of Stainless Steel
8.2.4 Crevice Corrosion
8.2.4.1 Controlling Pitting and Crevice Corrosion in Stainless Steels
8.2.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)
8.2.5.1 Prevention of Stress Corrosion Cracking
8.2.5.2 Some Practical Considerations in Use of Stainless Steels
Chloride Concentration and Temperature Limits
Cooling Water System
Process Plant Equipment
8.2.5.3 External Stress Corrosion Cracking (ESCC) of Insulated Stainless Steel
Prevention Against (ESCC) of Stainless
8.2.5.4 ESCC of Non-Insulated Stainless Steel
8.2.6 Intergranular Corrosion (IGC)
8.2.6.1 Austenitic Stainless Steel
8.2.6.2 Knife Line Attack
8.2.6.3 Remedial Measures
8.2.6.4 Ferritic Stainless Steel
8.2.7 Erosion–Corrosion
8.2.7.1 Prevention of Erosion Corrosion
8.2.8 Cavitation Damage
8.2.8.1 Prevention of Cavitation Damage
8.2.9 Fretting Corrosion
8.2.9.1 Prevention of Fretting Corrosion
8.2.10 Corrosion Fatigue
8.2.10.1 Prevention of Corrosion Fatigue
8.2.11 Dealloying Corrosion
8.2.12 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion (MIC)
8.3 Corrosion Control
8.3.1 Corrosion Resistant Materials
8.3.1.1 Metals and Alloys
8.3.1.2 Non-metals
8.3.2 Alteration of Environment
8.3.2.1 Lowering Temperature
8.3.2.2 Decreasing Velocity
8.3.2.3 Removing Oxygen or Oxidizing Agent
8.3.2.4 Changing Concentration
8.3.2.5 Neutralization
8.3.2.6 Inhibition
Adsorption-Type Inhibitors
Passivators
Vapour-Phase Inhibitors
Oxygen Scavengers
8.3.3 Electrochemical Protection
8.3.3.1 Cathodic Protection
Methods of Applying Protective Current
Anodes Used for Cathodic Protection (Added This Portion)
Protective Potential
Magnitude of Applied Current
Checking Effectiveness of Cathodic Protection
Typical Applications of Cathodic Protection
8.3.3.2 Anodic Protection
8.3.4 Coatings
8.3.4.1 Metallic and Other Inorganic Coatings
Electrodeposited Coating
Flame-Sprayed Coating
Hot Dipped Coating
Vapour Deposited Coating
Diffusion Coating
Chemical Conversion Coating
8.3.4.2 Non-Metallic Coatings
8.3.4.3 Organic Paint Coatings
Surface Preparation
Selection of Paint System
Maintenance Painting
8.3.4.4 Coating and Wrapping of Pipeline
8.3.5 Precautions During Design and Construction
8.4 Corrosion Monitoring
8.4.1 Analysis of Process Stream
8.4.2 Coupon Test
8.4.3 Electrochemical Techniques
8.4.3.1 Electrical Resistance Technique (ER)
8.4.3.2 Linear Polarization Resistance Technique (LPR)
8.4.4 Hydrogen Probe
8.4.4.1 Electrochemical Hydrogen Patch Probe
8.4.4.2 Hydrogen Pressure Probe
8.4.5 Field Signature Method (FSM)
8.4.6 Sand Probe
8.4.7 Bio-Probe
8.5 Metallurgical Degradation
8.5.1 Spheroidization/Carbide Coarsening
8.5.2 Graphitization
8.5.3 Phase Transformation/Phase Precipitation
8.5.3.1 Sigma Phase Formation
8.5.3.2 Carbide Precipitation
8.5.3.3 Chi Phase Formation
8.5.3.4 Other Intermetallics
8.5.4 Temper Embrittlement
8.6 High Temperature Degradation
8.6.1 Oxidation
8.6.1.1 Electrochemical and Morphological Aspects of Oxidation
8.6.1.2 Growth of Oxide Scale
8.6.1.3 Effect of Alloying
8.6.2 Catastrophic Oxidation/Fuel Ash Corrosion
8.6.2.1 Prevention of Fuel Ash Corrosion
8.6.3 High Temperature Hydrogen Attack
8.6.3.1 Prevention of High Temperature Hydrogen Damage
Blister Formation
High Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
Performance of Cr–0.5Mo Steel
Dearburization
8.7 Cost of Corrosion to Society
8.7.1 Estimation of Cost of Corrosion
8.7.2 Formation of World Body
References
9 Material Selection and Performance in Oil and Gas Industry
Abstract
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Summary of Oil and Gas Production Facilities
9.3 Corrosion Damage in Oil and Gas Production
9.3.1 Corrosivity of Reservoir Well Fluid
9.3.1.1 Carbon Dioxide
9.3.1.2 Hydrogen Sulphide
9.3.1.3 Bicarbonates
9.3.1.4 Chlorides
9.3.1.5 Effect of Acetic Acid
9.3.1.6 Role of Oil–Water Ratio
9.3.1.7 Elemental Sulphur
9.3.1.8 Mercury Corrosion
Prevention Against Mercury Corrosion
9.3.1.9 Oxygen
9.3.1.10 Microbial-Induced Corrosion (MIC)
9.3.1.11 Glycol/Methanol
9.3.1.12 Flow Rate
9.3.2 Embrittlement Effect of Hydrogen Sulphide
9.3.2.1 Controlling Hydrogen Related Damage
SSSC and SOHIC
Blistering and HIC
9.3.3 Development of CO2 Corrosion Model
9.3.3.1 CO2 Corrosion in Multi-phase System
9.3.3.2 Corrosion in Gaseous Phase
9.4 Material Selection and Corrosion Control for Gas and Oil Wells
9.4.1 Well Completion
9.4.2 Corrosion Control in Oil and Gas Wells
9.4.2.1 Casing
9.4.2.2 Production Tubing
Protection by Inhibitors
Application of Inhibitors
Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
9.5 Material Selection and Corrosion Control of Gathering Lines
9.5.1 Application of Inhibitor in Flow Lines
9.5.1.1 Continuous Inhibition
9.5.1.2 Batch Inhibition
9.5.1.3 Pigging
9.5.2 Use of Corrosion-Resistant Alloys
9.5.2.1 Solid CRA
9.5.2.2 Clad Corrosion-Resistant Alloy (CRA) Pipeline
Types of Clad Pipe
9.5.2.3 Material Selection Standard for Oil and Gas Production
9.5.3 Protection of Carbon Steel Gathering Lines by Internal Coating
9.5.3.1 New Lines
9.5.3.2 Old Lines
9.5.4 External Protection of Gathering Lines
9.5.4.1 External Coating
9.5.4.2 Cathodic Protection of Offshore Lines
9.5.4.3 Cathodic Protection of Onshore-Gathering Lines
9.5.4.4 Galvanic Anodes for Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection in Deep-Water Installations
9.5.5 Non-Metallic Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipe (RTP)-Gathering Lines
9.5.6 Umbilical for Operation of Well Heads in Deep Water Sea Bed
9.5.7 Instrument, Chemical Inhibition and Other Tubing
9.6 Material Selection and Corrosion Control for Oil and Gas Processing
9.6.1 Processing Facilities
9.6.1.1 Oil Fields
Handling of Well Fluid
Handling of Crude
Handling of Associated Gas
Handling of Produced Water
9.6.1.2 Gas Field
9.6.2 Gas Drying
9.6.2.1 Corrosion Protection of Pipelines Carrying Wet Gas
Formation of Gas Hydrate
Corrosion Inhibition
pH Stabilization
Combined pH Stabilization and Corrosion Inhibition
Corrosion Allowance
Operator Variations
9.7 Processing of Oil and Gas
9.7.1 Crude Oil Processing
9.7.2 Gas Processing
9.7.2.1 NGL Extraction
Absorption Process
Cryogenic Expansion Process
9.7.2.2 Separation of Liquid Fractionation
9.7.3 Natural Gas (NG)
9.7.4 Material Selection for Sub-zero and Cryogenic Temperatures
9.7.5 Gas Sweetening
9.7.5.1 Amine Process
Amine Degradation
Amine Reclamation
Corrosion Control
Stress Corrosion Cracking
9.8 Offshore Platform
9.8.1 Protection of Offshore Platform Against Corrosion
9.8.1.1 Cathodic Protection
9.8.1.2 Coating
9.8.1.3 Sheathing of Legs and Risers
9.8.1.4 Corrosion Fatigue of Platform Structure
9.9 Protection of Long-Distance Cross-Country Pipeline
9.9.1 Cathodic Protection
9.9.2 Soil Side SCC
9.10 Corrosion Monitoring
9.10.1 Iron Count
9.10.2 Coupons and LPR and ER Probes
9.10.3 NDE Techniques
9.10.4 Special Techniques
9.10.5 Monitoring of Cathodic Protection
9.10.6 Assessing Corrosion of Underground and Subsea Transmission Line Using In-line Intelligent or
9.10.6.1 Magnetic Flux Leakage (MFL) Tool
9.10.6.2 Ultrasonic Tool (UT)
9.10.6.3 Combined MFL and UT Tool
References
10 Material Selection and Performance in Refining Industry
Abstract
10.1 Short Outline of Processes
10.2 Considerations in Material Selection
10.3 Problems Related to High-Temperature Service
10.3.1 High-Temperature Sulphur Attack
10.3.1.1 Corrosive Constituents in Crude
10.3.1.2 Prediction of Sulphur Corrosion
10.3.2 High-Temperature Naphthenic Acid Attack
10.3.2.1 Naphthenic Acid
10.3.2.2 Control of Naphthenic Acid Corrosion (NAC)
10.3.2.3 Role of Sulphur in Naphthenic Acid Corrosion
10.4 Material Selection for Different Processing Units
10.4.1 Atmospheric Crude and Vacuum Distillation Units
10.4.1.1 Low Sulphur Crude
10.4.1.2 High-Sulphur Crude
Exchangers
Heater Tubes
Atmospheric Distillation Column
Pumps and Valves
10.4.2 Processing High TAN Crude
10.4.2.1 Controlling Naphthenic Acid Corrosion by Material Upgradation
Materials Resistance to NAP
Furnace Tubes and Transfer Lines
Atmospheric and Vacuum Column
Side-Cut Piping
Pumps and Valves
10.4.2.2 Other Methods for Controlling Naphthenic Acid Corrosion
10.4.2.3 Summary of MOC
10.4.3 Visbreaker and Coking Units
10.4.3.1 Process Outline
10.4.3.2 Materials of Construction
10.4.3.3 Specific Problems Experienced in Coking Units
Vapour Lines
Bulging of Drums
Coke Drum Life
Failure of Skirt and Skirt to Shell Weld
API Surveys
Monitoring of Coker Drum Damage
10.4.4 Fluid Catalytic Cracking
10.4.4.1 Process Outline
10.4.4.2 Material Selection
10.4.4.3 Refractory Lining
10.4.5 Catalytic Reforming Unit
10.4.5.1 Process Outline
10.4.5.2 Selection of MOC
10.4.5.3 Problems Experienced in CCRU
10.4.6 Hydro-desulphurizer and Hydrocracker Units
10.4.6.1 Process Outline
10.4.6.2 Role of Hydrogen in High-Temperature Sulphur Attack
10.4.6.3 MOC Used in Hydro-desulphurizer
10.4.6.4 MOC of Hydrocracker
Advanced Cr–Mo–V Alloys for Hydrocracker
Advantages of Vanadium-Modified 2.25Cr–Mo Steel
Hydrogen Embrittlement of Reactors
Minimum Pressurization Temperature (MPT)
10.5 Problems Related to Low-Temperature Service
10.5.1 Corrosive Constituents
10.5.1.1 Acid Corrosion
10.5.1.2 Alkaline Corrosion
10.5.2 Overhead Corrosion Control System in Different Units
10.5.2.1 Crude and Vacuum Unit
Source of Hydrochloric Acid
Source of Hydrogen Sulphide
Source of Organic Acids
Other Acids/Acidic Salts
Corrosion Control Measures
Neutralization
Inhibition
Water Wash
Upgradation of MOC
Vacuum Unit
10.5.2.2 Visbreaker and Coker Units
10.5.2.3 Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) Unit
Carbonate Stress Corrosion Cracking
10.5.2.4 Catalytic Reformer
10.5.2.5 Hydro-desulphurizer and Hydrocracker
Polythionic Acid Cracking
10.5.3 Low-Temperature Hydrogen Damage
10.5.3.1 Introduction
10.5.3.2 Damage in Wet H2S Service in Refinery Service
Definition of Sour Service
Prevention of SSCC in Refinery Sour Service
10.5.3.3 Cracking of LPG Sphere
10.5.3.4 Blistering
10.5.4 Pyrophoric Iron Sulphides
10.5.5 Corrosion in Ethanol Service
10.5.5.1 General Corrosion in Ethanol Service
10.5.5.2 Stress Corrosion of Carbon Steel in Ethanol Service
References
11 Material Selection and Performance in Fertilizer Industry
Abstract
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Hydrogen Production
11.2.1 Process Outline
11.2.2 High-Temperature Section
11.2.2.1 Primary Reformer
11.2.2.2 Pigtails and Collecting Headers
11.2.2.3 Materials Specification for Primary Reformer Tubes
11.2.2.4 Secondary Reformer
11.2.3 Intermediate Temperature Section
11.2.3.1 RG Boiler
11.2.3.2 Shift Converter
11.2.3.3 Metal Dusting
Mechanism of Metal Dusting
Preventive Measures
11.2.4 Low-Temperature Section
11.2.4.1 Cooling of Reformed Gas Before Removal of CO2
11.2.4.2 Carbon Dioxide Removal
Carbonate Process
11.3 Ammonia Synthesis
11.3.1 Intermediate Temperature Section
11.3.1.1 Nitriding
11.3.1.2 Start-Up and Shutdown Procedures
Heating Rate
Pressurization Rate
Dehydrogenation
11.3.2 Low-Temperature Section
11.3.2.1 Pressurized Storage
11.3.2.2 Atmospheric Storage
Nature of Cracking
11.4 Waste Heat Boilers (WHB)
11.4.1 Reformed Gas Boiler
11.4.2 Vertical Waste Heat Boiler
11.5 Production of Urea
11.5.1 Conventional Alloys for Carbamate Service
11.5.2 Development of New Alloys
11.5.2.1 Duplex Stainless Steel
Improved Plant Safety with DSS
11.5.2.2 Bi-metallic Stripper Tube
Mechanically Bonded Tube
Metallurgically Bonded Tube
Zirconium Stripper Tube
References
12 Damage Assessment and Repair of Stationary Equipment
Abstract
12.1 Importance of Plant Inspection
12.1.1 Inspection Tools and Techniques
12.1.1.1 Radiography
12.1.1.2 Dye Penetrant (Normal or Fluorescent)
12.1.1.3 Wet Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Inspection (WFMPI)
12.1.1.4 Ultrasonic Test (UT)
12.1.1.5 Acoustic Emission (AE)
12.1.2 Inspection Planning
12.1.2.1 Conventional Inspection Practices
12.1.2.2 Risk-Based Inspection
12.2 Pressure Vessel Code
12.2.1 History of Pressure Vessel Code
12.2.2 American Codes
12.2.3 Unfired Pressure Vessels Code
12.2.4 Process Piping Code
12.2.5 Pressure Vessel Code in United Kingdom
12.2.6 European Pressure Vessel Codes
12.2.7 Some Important Aspects of ASME and EN Codes
12.3 Material Requirements
12.3.1 Thickness
12.3.2 Allowable/Design Stress
12.3.3 Carbon and Low-Alloy Ferritic Steels
12.3.4 Stainless Steels
12.3.5 Cost and Preferences Related to ASME and EN Codes
12.4 Heat Treatment Requirements
12.4.1 Post-Weld Heat Treatment
12.4.1.1 Post-Weld Heat Treatment Requirement in Some Other Industries
12.4.1.2 Post-Weld Heat Treatment Temperature
12.4.1.3 Post-Weld Heat Treatment Holding Time
12.4.1.4 Procedure for Post-Weld Heat Treatment
Shop Welding
Field Welding
12.4.1.5 Local Post-Weld Heat Treatment
Improvements in Local PWHT
Procedure for Local PWHT
12.5 Repair, Alteration and Rerating
12.5.1 General Background
12.5.2 Repair Procedure
12.5.2.1 Salient Features of ASME PCC–2
Outline of a Few Repair Techniques
12.6 Specific Inspection Procedures
12.6.1 Inspection of Equipment Subjected to Hydrogen Damage
12.6.1.1 Equipment Operating in Sour Service
12.6.1.2 Equipment Operating at High-Temperature High-Pressure Service (HTHA)
Attenuation Measurement
Advanced Back-Scattered Ultrasonic Testing (ABUT)
Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
Velocity Ratio Measurement
Surface Replica Test
12.6.2 Inspection of Tubular Items
12.6.2.1 Inspection of Hydrogen Reformer Tubes
Dimensional Changes
Surface Replica
Ferromagnetism of Tube
Eddy Current Examination
Ultrasonic Attenuation
H-Scan
Laser Profilometry
12.6.2.2 Corrosion Inspection Under Insulation and Fireproofing
12.7 Repair Welding of Equipment
12.7.1 Repair Welding of Ferritic Steel Equipment in Hydrogen Charging Service
12.7.1.1 Designation of Consumables with Respect to Diffusible Hydrogen
12.7.2 Avoidance of Hydrogen Embrittlement of Repair Weld
12.7.2.1 Control of Preheat Temperature
12.7.2.2 Hydrogen Bake-Out Prior to Welding
Guidelines for Hydrogen Bake-Out
12.7.2.3 Post-Heat Treatment
12.7.3 PWHT of Repair Weld
12.7.3.1 Where PWHT Is not Exempted
12.7.3.2 Where PWHT Can Be Exempted
Impact Testing Is Not a Requirement
Where Notch Toughness Is a Requirement
12.7.3.3 Effect of Multiple PWHT on Mechanical Properties of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
Use of Equivalent Parameter
Change in Mechanical Properties Versus LMP of Alloy Steels
Change in Mechanical Properties Versus LMP of Carbon Steel
Achieving Acceptable Property Both in Original and Simulated PWHT Conditions
12.7.3.4 Implementation of PWHT
12.7.3.5 PWHT Temperature
12.7.3.6 Precaution Against Physical Restraints
12.7.3.7 Inspection After PWHT
12.7.3.8 Post-Weld Cleaning of Stainless Steel
12.8 Post-Repair Hydrotesting
12.8.1 Hydrotesting of Carbon Steel with Sea water
12.8.2 Hydrotesting of Stainless Steel
12.9 Integrity Operating Window
References
13 Failure Analysis
Abstract
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Causes of Material Failure
13.3 Steps in Material Failure Analysis
13.3.1 Visual Examination
13.3.2 Operating Conditions
13.3.3 Investigation
13.3.4 Samples for Testing
13.3.4.1 Where Samples are Available for Destructive Examination
13.3.4.2 Where Samples are Not Available and Non-destructive Tests are to be Conducted
13.3.4.3 Where Samples can be Obtained by Semi-destructive Methods
13.4 Tools for Failure Analysis
13.4.1 Tools for Visual Examination
13.4.2 Chemical Analysis
13.4.3 Metallurgical Examination
13.4.3.1 Macroscopic Examination
13.4.3.2 Microscopic Examination
Optical Microscopy
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Microanalysis by Means of SEM
13.4.3.3 Some Case Studies
13.4.3.4 Field Microscopy
13.4.4 X-ray Diffraction
13.4.5 Non Destructive Examination (NDE) Techniques
13.4.5.1 Dye Penetrant (DP)
13.4.5.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI)
13.4.5.3 Ultrasonic Testing Technique
13.4.5.4 Radiography
13.4.6 Mechanical Testing
13.5 Stages in Failure Analysis
13.5.1 In-plant Failure Analysis
13.5.2 Centralized In-house Failure Analysis
13.5.3 Failure Analysis by Outside Specialist
13.6 Analysis of Data and Recommendations
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