Handbook of Humidity Measurement Volume 3 Sensing Materials and Technologies 1st Edition by Ghenadii Korotcenkov 1138482870 9781138482876

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ISBN-10 :  1138482870 

ISBN-13 :  9781138482876

Author:  Ghenadii Korotcenkov 

Because of unique water properties, humidity affects materials and many living organisms, including humans. Humidity control is important in various fields, from production management to creating a comfortable living environment. The range of materials that can be used in the development of humidity sensors is very broad, and the third volume of the Handbook of Humidity Measurement offers an analysis on various humidity-sensitive materials and sensor technologies used in the fabrication of humidity sensors and methods acceptable for their testing. Additional features include: numerous strategies for the fabrication and characterization of humidity-sensitive materials and sensing structures used in sensor applications, methods and properties to develop smaller, cheaper, more robust, and accurate devices with better sensitivity and stability, a guide to sensor selection and an overview of the humidity sensor market, and new technology solutions for integration, miniaturization, and specificity of the humidity sensor calibration. Handbook of Humidity Measurement, Volume 3: Sensing Materials and Technologies provides valuable information for practicing engineers, measurement experts, laboratory technicians, project managers in industries and national laboratories, and university students and professors interested in solutions to humidity measurement tasks. Despite the fact that this book is devoted to the humidity sensors, it can be used as a basis for understanding fundamentals of any gas sensor operation and development.

Handbook of Humidity Measurement, Volume 3-Sensing Materials and Technologies 1st Table of contents:

SECTION I Humidity-Sensitive Materials
Chapter 1 Polymers
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Polymers as Sensing Materials
1.1.2 Stability of Polymers
1.2 Polymer Degradation
1.2.1 Thermal Degradation
1.2.2 Oxidative Degradation
1.2.2.1 Photochemical Oxidation
1.2.2.2 Thermal Oxidation
1.2.2.3 Hydrolytic Degradation
1.2.3 Biodegradation
1.2.4 Degradation Caused by Ionizing Radiations
1.2.5 Conducting Polymers Dedoping
1.3 Approaches to Polymer Stabilization
References
Chapter 2 Metal Oxide in Humidity Sensors
2.1 Main Advantages and Limitations of Metal Oxides and Their Characterization
2.2 Mechanisms of Humidity Sensitivity
2.3 Multilayer Water Adsorption at Solid Surfaces
2.3.1 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Isotherm
2.3.2 Water Adsorption at Solid Surfaces
2.4 How to Optimize Sensor Performance
References
Chapter 3 Al2O3 as a Humidity-Sensitive Material
3.1 Al2O3-Based Humidity Sensors
3.2 Features of Al Anodization
3.2.1 General Consideration
3.2.2 Mechanism of Pore Formation
3.2.3 Parameters of Anodic Porous Alumina and How to Control Them
3.2.4 Two-Step Anodization
3.3 Limitations of Al2O3-Based Humidity Sensors and How Resolve This Problem
3.4 Al2O3-Based Humidity Sensors Fabricated Using Other Technologies
References
Chapter 4 Carbon-Based Materials
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Carbon Black
4.2.1 CB-Polymer Composites and Their Application in Humidity Sensors
4.3 Fullerenes
4.4 Carbon Nanotubes
4.4.1 Synthesis of CNTs
4.4.2 Features of CNTs and Prospects for Their Applications in Humidity Sensors
4.4.3 Disadvantages of CNTs Which Can Limit Their Application in Humidity Sensors
4.4.4 CNT-Based Composites
4.5 Graphene
4.5.1 Synthesis and Deposition of Graphene Layers
4.5.2 Graphene-Based Gas and Humidity Sensors
4.5.3 Disadvantages of Graphene, Limiting Its Application
4.6 Nanodiamond Particles
4.7 Carbon Nitride
4.7.1 Carbon Nitride and Its Properties
4.7.2 Humidity-Sensing Characteristics of Carbon Nitride
4.8 Surface Functionalizing of Carbon Nanotubes and Other Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
4.8.1 Carbon Nanotubes
4.8.2 Carbon Black and Fullerenes
4.8.3 Graphene
References
Chapter 5 Semiconductor-Based Humidity Sensors
5.1 Conventional IV and III-V Semiconductors
5.2 Gallium and Boron Nitrides (Wide-Band Semiconductors)
5.2.1 Gallium Nitride
5.2.2 Boron Nitride
5.3 Chalcogenides
5.4 Dichalcogenides
5.4.1 Features and Synthesis
5.4.2 Dichalcogenide-Based Humidity Sensors
5.5 Silicon Carbide (SiC)
5.5.1 SiC-Based Humidity Sensors
References
Chapter 6 Porous Silicon
6.1 Porous Silicon: General Consideration
6.1.1 Advantages of Porous Silicon for Humidity-Sensor Application
6.2 Features of Silicon Porosification
6.2.1 Electrochemical Porosification
6.2.2 Other Methods of Silicon Porosification
6.3 PSi Characterization
6.4 PSi-Based Humidity Sensors
6.4.1 Capacitance Humidity Sensors
6.4.2 Resistive Humidity Sensors
6.4.3 Other Types of PSi-Based Humidity Sensors
6.4.4 Micromachined PSi-Based Humidity Sensors
6.5 Limitations of PSi-Based Humidity Sensors
6.6 Approaches to Optimization of PSi-Based Humidity Sensors
6.6.1 Sensitivity
6.6.2 Selectivity
6.6.3 The Rate of Response
6.6.4 Hysteresis
6.6.5 Linearity
6.6.6 Stability
6.6.6.1 Stabilization through Oxidation
6.6.6.2 Stabilization through Thermal Carbonization and Nitridation
6.6.6.3 Stabilization through Surface Functionalizing
6.6.6.4 Temperature Stabilization
6.6.6.5 Drift Compensation
6.7 Conclusions and Future Trends
References
Chapter 7 Mesoporous Silica and Its Prospects for Humidity Sensor Application
7.1 Classification of Porous Materials
7.2 Mesoporous Silica
7.3 Advantages of Silica for Sensor Applications
7.4 Silica-Based Humidity Sensors
7.4.1 Approaches to Humidity Sensor Design
7.4.2 Features of Humidity Sensor Fabrication
References
Chapter 8 Aluminosilicate (Zeolites)-Based Humidity Sensors
8.1 Zeolites and Features of Their Synthesis
8.2 Advantages for Gas-Sensor Applications
8.3 Zeolite-Based Humidity Sensors
8.4 Limitations of Zeolite Application in Humidity Sensors
References
Chapter 9 Metal Phosphate-Based Humidity Sensitive Materials
9.1 Metal Phosphates
9.2 Synthesis and Mechanism of Molecular Sieve Growth
9.3 Metal Phosphate-Based Humidity Sensors
9.4 Limitations
References
Chapter 10 Black Phosphorus and Phosphorene-Based Humidity Sensors
10.1 Black Phosphorus
10.2 Crystal and Electronic Structures of BP
10.3 Synthesis of Black Phosphorus and Phosphorene
10.3.1 Bulk Black Phosphorus
10.3.2 Phosphorene
10.4 Black Phosphorus-Based Humidity Sensors
10.5 Limitations
10.5.1 The Tunability of Black Phosphorus Properties
10.5.2 Instability of Black Phosphorus
References
Chapter 11 Metal-Organic Framework-Based Humidity Sensors
11.1 Metal-Organic Frameworks
11.1.1 General Consideration
11.1.2 MOF Synthesis and Structural Engineering
11.2 Humidity-Sensor Applications
11.2.1 Advantages for Gas-Sensor Applications
11.2.2 MOF-Based Humidity Sensors
11.2.2.1 Mass-Sensitive Sensors
11.2.2.2 Other Types of Humidity Sensors
11.2.3 Features of MOF-Based Sensor Fabrication
11.2.4 How to Optimize the Sensor Performance?
11.2.5 Limitations
11.3 Prospects of MOF for Structural Engineering of Humidity-Sensitive Materials
References
Chapter 12 Supramolecular Materials
12.1 Cavitands
12.1.1 Characterization
12.1.2 Cavitands as a Material for Gas and Electrochemical Sensors
12.1.3 Cavitand-Based Humidity Sensors
12.1.4 Limitations
12.2 Metallo-Complexes
12.2.1 Characterization
12.2.2 Advantages for Gas-Sensor Applications
12.2.3 Humidity-Sensor Applications of Metallo-Complexes
12.2.4 Approaches to Improving Gas-Sensor Parameters and Limitations
12.2.5 Limitations
References
Chapter 13 Biomaterials as Sensing Elements of Humidity Sensors
13.1 Proteins as Humidity-Sensitive Material
13.2 Collagen-Based Humidity Sensors
13.3 Other Biomaterials
References
SECTION II Sensor Technologies and Related Materials
Chapter 14 Substrates and Electrodes in Humidity Sensors
14.1 Conventional Substrates for Humidity Sensors
14.2 Electrodes
14.3 Materials for Heater Fabrication
References
Chapter 15 Fundamentals of Microfabrication Technologies
15.1 CMOS Process and Its Use in the Manufacture of Humidity Sensors
15.1.1 CMOS Process: General Consideration
15.1.2 CMOS-Based Humidity Sensors
15.1.3 CMOS-MEMS-Based Humidity Sensors
15.2 Features of Micromachining Processes
15.2.1 Bulk Micromachining
15.2.1.1 Wet Etching
15.2.1.2 Dry Etching
15.2.1.3 Examples of the Manufacture of Membranes and Cantilevers
15.2.2 Surface Micromachining
15.2.2.1 Features of Surface Micromachining Processes
15.2.3 Processes Using Both Bulk and Surface Micromachining
15.2.4 Other Micromachining Techniques
15.2.4.1 PSi-Based Micromachining
15.2.4.2 Lasers in Micromachining
15.2.4.3 LIGA Micromachining
15.3 Wafer Bonding
15.3.1 Direct Bonding (High Temperature)
15.3.2 Anodic Bonding
15.3.3 Bonding Using Intermediate Layers
15.4 Summary
References
Chapter 16 Micromachining Platforms for Humidity Sensors and Examples of Their Fabrication
16.1 Micromachining Membranes
16.2 Silicon-Based Microcantilevers
16.3 Functionalization of Cantilever and Membrane Surfaces
References
Chapter 17 Platforms and Materials for QCM and SAW-Based Humidity Sensors
17.1 Piezoelectric Materials
17.2 High-Temperature AW Devices
17.3 Micromachining QCM-Based Sensors
References
Chapter 18 Technologies Suitable for Fabrication of Humidity Sensing Layers: General Consideration
18.1 Introduction: Acceptable Technologies and Their Advantages and Limitations
18.2 Ceramic Technology
18.3 Planar Sensors
18.3.1 Thick-Film Technology
18.3.1.1 Screen Printing
18.3.1.2 Other Printing Technologies
18.3.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thick-Film Technology
18.3.2 Thin-Film Technology
18.3.2.1 Features of the Morphology of the Films Deposited Using Methods of Thin-Film Technology
18.4 Summary
References
Chapter 19 Polymer Technologies
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Methods of Polymer Synthesis
19.3 Preparation of Porous Polymers
19.4 Fabrication of Polymer Films
19.4.1 Solution-Based Methods
19.4.2 Dry Methods
19.5 Bulk and Structure Modification of Polymers
19.5.1 Solvents and Their Role in the Formation of Pores
19.5.2 Cross-Linkers
19.5.3 Initiators
19.5.4 Plasticizers
19.6 Approaches to Polymer Functionalizing
19.6.1 Polymer Doping
19.6.1.1 Redox Doping (Ion Doping)
19.6.1.2 Photo and Charge-Injection Doping
19.6.1.3 Nonredox Doping
19.6.2 Polymer Grafting
19.6.3 Surface Modification via Plasma Treatment
19.7 Adhesion of Polymer Films and How to Improve This Parameter
19.8 The Role of Polymer Functionalization in Humidity-Sensing Effect
19.9 Polymer-Based Nanocomposites and Their Application in Humidity Sensors
19.10 Polymer-Based Micromachining
19.10.1 SU-8-Based Micromachining Technology
19.10.2 Polyimide-Based Micromachining
References
Chapter 20 Synthesis of Humidity-Sensitive Metal Oxides: Powder Technologies
20.1 Methods Acceptable for Synthesis of Humidity-Sensitive Metal Oxides
20.2 Wet Chemical Methods of Metal-Oxide Synthesis
20.2.1 Co-precipitation Methods
20.2.2 Sonochemical Method
20.2.3 Microemulsion Technique
20.2.4 The Sol-Gel Processing
20.2.5 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Techniques
20.2.6 Microwave-Assisted Method
20.2.7 Calcination of Metal Hydroxides Synthesized by Wet Methods
20.3 Synthesis in the Vapor Phase
20.3.1 Gas Processing Condensation
20.3.2 Chemical Vapor Condensation
20.3.3 Microwave Plasma Processing
20.3.4 Combustion Flame Synthesis
20.3.5 Nanopowders Collection
20.4 Mechanical Milling of Powders: Mechano-chemical Method
References
Chapter 21 Humidity Sensors Based on Individual Metal-Oxide 1D Structures: Fabrication Features and Application Prospects
21.1 Sensors Based on Individual Metal-Oxide 1D Structures and Their Advantages
21.2 Synthesis of Metal-Oxide One-Dimensional Nanomaterials
21.2.1 Vapor-Phase Growth
21.2.2 Solution-Phase Growth Method
21.3 Features of 1D Structure-Based Sensor Fabrication
21.4 Limitations of Technology Based on Individual 1D Nanostructures
21.5 Humidity Sensors Based on Individual 1D Structures
21.6 Summary
References
Chapter 22 Nanofiber-Based Humidity Sensors and Features of Their Fabrication
22.1 Approaches to Nanofibers Preparing
22.1.1 Electrospinning
22.1.2 Other Methods of Forming Nanofibers
22.2 Polymer Nanofiber-Based Humidity Sensors
22.3 Inorganic Nanofibers and Humidity Sensors
22.4 Limitations of Electrospinning
References
Chapter 23 Humidity Sensors Based on Metal-Oxide Mesoporous-Macroporous and Hierarchical Structures
23.1 Mesoporous-Macroporous and Hierarchical Structures
23.1.1 General Consideration
23.1.2 Technological Approaches to the Synthesis of Mesoporous-Macroporous and Hierarchical Structures
23.1.3 Gas Sensors Based on Mesoporous and Hierarchical Nanostructures
23.1.4 Structural Stability of Mesostructured Metal Oxides
23.2 Humidity Sensors Based on Mesoporous and Hierarchical Nanostructures
23.2.1 Mesoporous-Macroporous Metal-Oxide-Based Humidity Sensors
23.2.2 Hybrid Nanocomposite-Based Humidity Sensors
23.2.3 Humidity Sensors Based on Metal Oxides with Hierarchical Structure
23.3 Summary
References
Chapter 24 Packaging, Air Cleaning, and Storage of Humidity Sensors
24.1 Humidity-Sensor Packaging: General Approach
24.2 Semiconductor Packaging Applied to Humidity Sensors
24.2.1 Increased Pin Count
24.2.2 Ceramic Packaging and Ceramic Substrates
24.3 Packaging of High-Frequency Humidity Sensors
24.4 Features of the Packaging of Humidity Sensors Fabricated on Flexible Substrates
24.5 Protective Cover and Filters
24.6 Storage of Humidity Sensors
References
SECTION III Calibration and Market of Humidity Sensors
Chapter 25 Humidity-Sensor Selection and Operation Guide
25.1 What Is an Ideal Humidity Sensor?
25.2 Some Practical Advice on Choosing and Using a Humidity Sensor
25.2.1 Sensor Selection
25.2.2 Features of Humidity Measurement
25.2.2.1 Sensor Location and Installation
25.2.2.2 Sampling
25.2.2.3 Uncertainty of Measurement
25.2.2.4 Contaminations
25.2.2.5 Some Recommendations in Humidity Measurement
References
Chapter 26 Humidity-Sensor Testing and Calibration
26.1 Humidity-Sensor Testing: Reliability Implications
26.2 Huimidity-Sensor Calibration: Introduction
26.2.1 Requirements of a Test System
26.2.2 Sources of Water Vapor in Measurement Chamber
26.2.2.1 Humidity Generators
26.2.2.2 Saturated Salt Solutions
26.2.2.3 Other Secondary Methods
26.3 Dynamic Method of Humidity-Sensor Calibration and Testing
26.3.1 Gas-Mixing Systems
26.3.2 Diffusion and Permeation Systems
26.3.2.1 Permeation Systems
26.3.3 Features of Testing the Sensor in the Measuring Cell of Flow Type
26.4 Some General Rules for Humidity-Sensor Calibration and Testing
References
Chapter 27 Comparative Analysis of Humidity Sensors and Their Advantages and Shortcomings
27.1 Which Humidity Sensor Is Better?
27.2 Comparative Characterization of Humidity Sensors
References
Chapter 28 Market of Electronic Humidity Sensors
28.1 Electronic Humidity Sensors and Their Specifications
28.2 Companies Operating in the Market for Humidity Sensors
28.3 Electronic Humidity Sensors and Their Characterization
28.3.1 Al2O3-Based Humidity Sensors
28.3.2 Capacitive and Resistive Humidity Sensors
28.3.3 Advanced Resistive (Piezoresistive) Humidity Sensors
28.3.4 Thermal-Conductivity-Based Humidity Sensors
28.3.5 Quartz Crystal Microbalance-Based Humidity Sensors
28.3.6 SAW-Based Dew-Point Hygrometers
28.3.7 Wireless Humidity Sensors
28.4 Market of Conventional Hygrometers
28.5 Summary

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