American Trypanosomiasis Chagas Disease Second Edition One Hundred Years of Research 1st edition by Jenny Telleria,Michel Tibayrenc PhD 9780128010297 0128010290

1. History of the discovery of the American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)

Abstract

A beautiful history of life and work

The history of a significant discovery

Salvador Mazza: marked the history of the knowledge of his disease

Cecilio Romanha: his contribution to the identification of the disease

First evidence of Trypanosomiasis Americana (Chagas disease) in various countries of Latin America

Chagas disease 100 years after the discovery

Acknowledgments

References

2. Chagas disease in pre-Colombian civilizations

Abstract

Introduction

Genetic variation

Archeology

Biochemistry (Bioarcheology)

The parasite transmission cycle

Insect vectors associated with the human habitats

Historical overview

Pre-Hispanic settlements in areas of transmission of T. cruzi

Oral infection by T. cruzi

Evidence of human T. cruzi infection in pre-Colombian civilizations

References

3. Social and medical aspects on Chagas disease management and control

Abstract

Introduction

General frame and costs of HCD

The medical burden of HCD in endemic and nonendemic areas

The particular question of specific treatment of Chagas disease

Some social remarks concerning the control of HCD

Final remarks

Abbreviations

References

4. Current epidemiological trends of Chagas disease in Latin America and future challenges: epidemiology, surveillance, and health policies

Abstract

Introduction

Modes of transmission

Methods and measurement of epidemiological trends in the continent from 1980 to 2006

Feasibility of interruption of transmission

Current control programs

Economic impact

Epidemiological impact in the region

Epidemiological impact

Future challenges

References

5. Geographical distribution of Chagas disease

Abstract

Introduction

Vector phylogeography and ecology

Parasite phylogeography and ecology

Epidemiological implications of parasite distributions

Vector–parasite–host interactions and implications for Chagas disease distribution

Assessment of regions affected by Chagas disease

Oceania and Asia

Chagas disease in Mexico and Central America

Chagas disease in the Amazon region

Chagas disease in the Andean region

Chagas disease in the Southern Cone countries

References

6. Classification and systematics of the Triatominae

Abstract

Introduction

Subfamily: Triatominae

Tribes and genera

Concept of species

Conclusions

A consensual approach to the species

Acknowledgment

References

7. Biology of Triatominae

Abstract

Introduction

General biology of vectors

Insight into the biology and ecology of Triatominae in the silvatic environment

Vectorial capacity and domesticity

Vector control strategy

Acknowledgments

Glossary

References

8. Population genetics of Triatominae

Abstract

Introduction

Vector population structure directs Chagas disease epidemiology and control

Genetic variation, population structure, and implications for vector control

Genetic variation and population structure of T. infestans, T. dimidiata, R. prolixus and other significant vectors of human Chagas disease

Perspective and future directions

Acknowledgments

References

9. Geographic distribution of Triatominae vectors in America

Abstract

Introduction

Limitation of sampling methods to estimate the geographic distribution of Triatominae

Pattern of species richness in the New World Triatominae

Distribution of Triatominae in the Americas

Environmental variables as indicators of Triatominae geographic distribution

Global warming and expansion of geographic range of T. infestans

Glossary

References

10. Control strategies against Triatominae

Abstract

Introduction

Elimination of domestic populations of Triatominae

Multinational initiatives

The beginning of the end?

Criteria for stratification of vector control priorities

Insecticide resistance

New technologies for vector control

The political commitment

Acknowledgments

References

11. Ecological aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi: Wild hosts and reservoirs

Abstract

Introduction

Order Didelphimorphia

Superorder Xenarthra

Order Rodentia

Order Primata

Order Carnivora

Order Chiroptera

Order Artiodactyla

References

12. Trypanosoma cruzi enzootic cycle: General aspects, domestic and synanthropic hosts and reservoirs

Abstract

The complex Trypanosoma cruzi transmission cycle

What are the Trypanosoma cruzi reservoirs?

Importance of wild and synanthropic mammals in public health—Brazil

Domestic mammalian species

Domestic nonmammalian species

Importance of infected domestic mammals on public health in Brazil

Mixed infection

References

13. Veterinary aspects

Abstract

Introduction

The various ways of infection of animals (and humans)

The problem of diagnosis in animals

Natural infections in domestic animals and livestock

Experimental infections in livestock

New cycles establish in the United States

Conclusions

References

14. Experimental studies of Chagas disease in animal models

Abstract

Introduction

Animal species used as experimental model in Chagas disease

Conclusions

References

15. Classification and phylogeny of Trypanosoma cruzi

Abstract

Application of molecular phylogenetics to trypanosome taxonomy and understanding evolution

Origin of trypanosomes and the relationship between T. cruzi and T. brucei

Relationships within the genus Trypanosoma

Molecular phylogenetics and traditional taxonomy of mammalian trypanosomes

The main groups of trypanosomes recognized in molecular phylogenetic analyses

The T. cruzi clade

The origin of the T. cruzi clade

Outlook

Glossary

References

16. Biology of Trypanosoma cruzi and biological diversity

Abstract

Taxonomy

Introduction

Evolutionary stages

Biological cycle

Biology in the vertebrate host

Biology in the invertebrate host

Biological diversity of T. cruzi

Maintaining T. cruzi in the laboratory

Glossary

References

17. Biochemistry of Trypanosoma cruzi

Abstract

Introduction

Chemotherapy of Chagas disease

Metabolic pathways in T. cruzi that could provide targets for drugs against Chagas disease

Redox metabolism

Acidocalcisome biochemistry and osmoregulation

Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

18. Ultrastructure of Trypanosoma cruzi and its interaction with host cells

Abstract

Structural organization of Trypanosoma cruzi

The nucleus

The kinetoplast–mitochondrion complex

The glycosome

The acidocalcisome

The contractile vacuole

The cytoskeleton

The flagellum

The flagellar pocket

The secretory pathway

The endocytic pathway

Other cytoplasmic structures

Acknowledgments

References

19. Genetics of Trypanosoma cruzi

Abstract

Nuclear genome

Sequencing of the CL Brener reference strain—a historical perspective

Sequencing strategy, genome organization, and content

Comparative genome sequencing and analyses

Transcription mechanisms and genetic expression in T. cruzi

References

Kinetoplast genome

Introduction

kDNA organization

Replication model of kDNA

Maxicircles and minicircles: kDNA coding

Determination of T. cruzi lineages analyzing minicircles DNA sequences

References

20. Experimental and natural recombination in Trypanosoma cruzi

Abstract

Introduction

Genetic diversity of T. cruzi

Experimental recombination

Recombination in natural populations

Conclusions and future research

Acknowledgments

References

21. Trypanosoma cruzi and the model of predominant clonal evolution

Abstract

Introduction

An indispensable recall of evolutionary genetics

The results: how does T. cruzi evolve?

Conclusion: Trypanosoma cruzi should be a star in the field of pathogen population genetics

Glossary of specialized terms

Acknowledgment

References

22. Vector transmission: How it works, what transmits, where it occurs

Abstract

How does transmission work?

Who transmits the parasite?

Where does the transmission occur?

The perception of vectors and a need for education

References

23. Maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi

Abstract

From maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi to congenital Chagas disease: definitions and limits

Epidemiological aspects of congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi

Routes of maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi

Timing of maternal–fetal transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi

Parasitic factors involved in transplacental transmission and development of Trypanosoma cruzi infection in fetuses/newborns

Maternal factors involved in transmission and development of Trypanosoma cruzi infection

Interactions between the maternal and fetal immune systems

Fetal/neonatal factors involved in the development of congenital Chagas disease

Vertical transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in other mammals

Pregnancy outcomes, clinical manifestations, and long-term consequences of congenital Chagas disease

Laboratory diagnosis of congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi

Treatment of congenital infection with Trypanosoma cruzi

Prevention and control of congenital Trypanosoma cruzi infection

Conclusions

References

24. Other forms of transmission: Blood transfusion, organ transplantation, laboratory accidents, oral and sexual transmission

Abstract

Introduction

Blood transfusion

Organ transplantation

Laboratory-acquired contamination

Oral transmission

Sexual transmission

References

25. Protective host response to Trypanosoma cruzi and its limitations

Abstract

Innate immune response in T. cruzi infection

Adaptive immune response: induction, characterization, and role of the T cell response

Adaptive immune response: the B cell response and production of antibodies

Deregulations of T and B lymphocyte responses

Escape mechanisms of T. cruzi to the immune responses

Conclusion

References

26. Cell invasion by Trypanosoma cruzi and the type I interferon response

Abstract

Introduction

Attachment to the host cell and parasite homing

Nonphagocytic cell invasion by T. cruzi

Escape from the lysosome

Host cellular processes required for T. cruzi invasion

Global transcriptional responses to T. cruzi infection: type I IFN response

Type I IFNs

Signaling pathways involved in type I IFN production in T. cruzi infected cells

Type I IFN responses to T. cruzi infection in the mouse model

The balance between type I and type II IFN responses during infection with intracellular pathogens

Concluding remarks

Acknowledgments

Glossary

References

27. Human genetic susceptibility to Chagas disease

Abstract

Phenotypes for study

Heritability

Candidate gene studies

Genetic associations from candidate gene studies to date

HLA

Focusing on the MHC class III region

Chemokines and their receptors

Cytokines and their receptors

Other genes

Genome-wide association studies

The future

References

28. Clinical phases and forms of Chagas disease

Abstract

Introduction

Acute phase

Chronic phase

Concluding remarks

Glossary

References

29. Diagnosis of Trypanosoma cruzi infection

Abstract

Introduction

History of diagnosis in Chagas disease

Diagnosis of T. cruzi infection

Parasitological tests

Serological tests

Blood banks, serology, and quality control for Chagas disease

Application of diagnostic tests in different contexts

Quality control in serology

Prophylaxis to avoid accidental contamination

Future perspectives

References

30. AIDS and Chagas’ disease

Abstract

Introduction

Epidemiology of Chagas’ disease in Latin America and Argentina

Natural history of Chagas’ disease

Pathogenic mechanisms of Chagas’ disease reactivation in AIDS patients

AIDS and Chagas’ disease

Clinical aspects

Laboratory diagnosis

Diagnosis of chagasic meningoencephalitis

Diagnosis of chagasic tumor-like lesions

Diagnosis of heart compromise

Differential diagnosis

Treatment

Conclusion

Glossary of specialized terms of this chapter

References

31. Treatment of Chagas disease

Abstract

Introduction

Drugs which inhibit protein or purine synthesis

Inhibitors of ergoesterol

Ofloxacine

Inhibitors of trypanothione metabolism

Inhibitors of cysteine protease (CPI)

Inhibitors of phospholipids

Inhibitors of pyrophosphate metabolism

Natural drugs

Other drugs

Treatment of human infection

Resistance of T. cruzi to drugs

Glossary

References

32. Vaccine development for Chagas disease

Abstract

Introduction

Immune mechanisms associated with protection against Trypanosoma cruzi infection

DNA vaccination in experimental models of Trypanosoma cruzi infection

Vaccination with attenuated parasites (premunition)

Final considerations