Surface Production Operations Volume IV Pumps and Compressors 1st edition by Maurice Stewart ISBN 0128099224 9780128099223

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ISBN 10:   0128099224      
ISBN 13: 978-0128099223
Author:     Maurice Stewart

For over thirty years, the Surface Production Operations Series has taken the guess work out of the design, selection, installation, operation, testing, and troubleshooting of surface production equipment. The fourth volume in this series, Pumps and Compressors is directed to both entry-level personnel and practicing professionals looking for an up-to-date reference book on managing, evaluating, sizing, selecting, installing, operating and maintaining pump and compressor systems. Packed with examples drawn from years of design and field experience, this reference features many charts, tables, equations, diagrams, and photographs to illustrate the basic applications including pump hydraulics, centrifugal and reciprocating compressor applications, compressor performance maps, pump performance curves, pump and compressor testing and installation, and many more critical topics. Packed with practical solutions Surface Production Operations: Pumps and Compressors delivers an essential design and specification reference for today’s engineers.

• Covers application and performance considerations for all types of pumps and compressors
• Delivers hands-on manual for applying mechanical and physical principles to select and design pump and compressor systems, supported by many tables and diagrams
• Gives expert advice on how to apply design codes and standards such as API 610, API 674, ANSI B78.1, API 617, API 11P, API RP 14C and the Hydraulic Institute

Surface Production Operations Volume IV Pumps and Compressors 1st Table of contents:

1. Chapter 1: Overview of pumps, compressors, and drivers

2. Chapter 1: Overview of Pumps, Compressors, and Drivers

   • Section 1.1 introduces basic concepts related to pumps, compressors, and drivers.
   • Section 1.2 outlines the scope and application of the content.
   • Section 1.3 gives an organizational structure of the book, dividing the material into three parts: pumps, compressors, and drivers.

   Chapter 2: Pump Fundamentals

   • This chapter dives deep into the engineering and hydraulic principles behind pumps, covering everything from basic fluid types to complex systems such as hydrodynamics, power requirements, and pump selection.
   • Topics like NPSH (Net Positive Suction Head), pump efficiency, and system head curves are covered thoroughly.
   • Includes exercises and questions for a practical understanding.

   Chapter 3: Centrifugal Pumps

   • This section covers the engineering principles specific to centrifugal pumps, detailing their performance curves, viscosity effects, affinity laws, and system head curves.
   • Parallel and series operation of pumps, suction considerations, and flow regulation are explored in detail.
   • There are specific types of centrifugal pumps described, including horizontal, vertical, and multistage pumps.
   • Troubleshooting, operational, and maintenance considerations are also addressed, making this section a comprehensive guide for centrifugal pump systems.

   Chapter 4: Reciprocating Pumps

   • Covers engineering principles specific to reciprocating pumps, including different types like plunger, piston, and diaphragm pumps.
   • Provides in-depth analysis on pump performance, pressure, capacity, and speed.
   • Details pump construction, fluid end components, and power end components with a focus on materials of construction, installation, and maintenance considerations.
   • Reciprocating pump standards and selection criteria are discussed, making it a practical reference for choosing and maintaining these pumps.

3. Chapter 5: Rotary Pumps

   5.1 Engineering Principles

   • 5.1.1 Background
     Overview of rotary pump technology, principles, and operation.

   • 5.1.2 Slip
     Explanation of slip in rotary pumps and its impact on performance.

   • 5.1.3 Volumetric Efficiency
     Discussion on how volumetric efficiency is measured and optimized in rotary pumps.

   • 5.1.4 Mechanical Efficiency
     The factors affecting mechanical efficiency in rotary pumps, including friction and losses.

   • 5.1.5 Suction Considerations
     Key factors influencing the suction process in rotary pumps, such as suction head and priming.

   5.2 Rotary Pump Types

   • 5.2.1 Eccentric Rotor
     Rotary pumps that use an eccentric rotor design for fluid movement.

     • 5.2.1.1 Sliding Vane
       The design and function of sliding vane pumps, where vanes slide in and out of the rotor to seal and move fluid.

     • 5.2.1.2 Flexible Vane
       Overview of flexible vane pumps and how they work to maintain fluid flow.

   • 5.2.2 Gear Pumps
     Gear-based rotary pumps used in various applications.

     • 5.2.2.1 External Gear
       The mechanics of external gear pumps, where two gears mesh to pump fluid.

     • 5.2.2.2 Internal Gear
       Design of internal gear pumps, featuring one gear inside another to move fluids.

     • 5.2.2.3 Lobe
       Explanation of lobe pumps, which use lobed rotors to move fluid without contact between the parts.

   • 5.2.3 Screw Pumps
     Types of rotary pumps utilizing screws for fluid movement.

     • 5.2.3.1 Single-Screw
       Characteristics and application of single-screw (progressive cavity) pumps.

     • 5.2.3.2 Two-Screw
       The operation and advantages of two-screw pumps for transferring liquids.

     • 5.2.3.3 Three-Screw
       How three-screw pumps offer benefits in specific high-pressure or high-flow applications.

   5.3 Rotary Pump Selection Guidelines

   • 5.3.1 Eccentric Rotor

     • 5.3.1.1 Vane
       Selection criteria for eccentric rotor vane pumps based on application needs.

   • 5.3.2 Gear

     • 5.3.2.1 External Gear
       Guidelines for selecting external gear pumps based on flow rate and pressure requirements.

     • 5.3.2.2 Internal Gear
       Choosing internal gear pumps for different operating conditions.

     • 5.3.2.3 Lobe
       Selection considerations for lobe pumps, suitable for handling viscous fluids.

   • 5.3.3 Screw

     • 5.3.3.1 Single-Screw
       Factors in selecting single-screw pumps, particularly for progressive cavity applications.

     • 5.3.3.2 Two-Screw
       Criteria for choosing two-screw pumps, often used for low to medium viscosity liquids.

     • 5.3.3.3 Three-Screw
       Key selection guidelines for three-screw pumps, typically used for high-flow, high-pressure operations.

   5.4 Rotary Pump Service Considerations

   Important aspects to consider for maintaining and servicing rotary pumps, including troubleshooting common issues.

   5.5 Rotary Pump Configurations

   • 5.5.1 External Gear Rotary Pump (Fig. 5.15)
     Detailed description and diagram of external gear rotary pumps.

   • 5.5.2 Internal Gear Rotary Pump (Fig. 5.16)
     Explanation of internal gear pump configuration and its operational characteristics.

   • 5.5.3 Single-Screw (Progressive Cavity) Rotary Pump (Fig. 5.17)
     Overview of the single-screw pump design and its progressive cavity pumping action.

   • 5.5.4 Two-Screw Rotary Pump (Fig. 5.18)
     Two-screw pump configuration and application in moving low- to medium-viscosity fluids.

   • 5.5.5 Three-Screw Rotary Pump (Fig. 5.19)
     Description of the three-screw pump configuration, used in applications requiring high-pressure operation.

   5.6 Installation Considerations

   • 5.6.1 Drivers
     Considerations when selecting drivers for rotary pumps, including motor and engine options.

   • 5.6.2 Instrumentation and Control Considerations
     The importance of instrumentation and controls in ensuring smooth rotary pump operation.

   • 5.6.3 Strainers
     The role of strainers in protecting pumps from debris and contaminants.

   • 5.6.4 PSVs (Pressure Safety Valves)
     Selection and installation of pressure safety valves to protect rotary pumps from overpressure situations.

   • 5.6.5 Lubrication Prior to Start-Up
     Proper lubrication procedures before starting a rotary pump to ensure smooth operation and longevity.

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   Chapter 6: Special Purpose Pumps

   6.1 Artificial Lift Pumps

   • 6.1.1 Electric Submersible Pumps (ESPs)
     Types of ESPs used for artificial lifting, particularly in oilfields and wells.

     • 6.1.1.1 Down-Hole Oilfield ESP
       Application of ESPs in oilfields for lifting crude oil from deep wells.

     • 6.1.1.2 Shallow Water Well Pumps
       Use of ESPs for lifting water from shallow wells in various industries.

   • 6.1.2 Sucker Rod Pump
     Overview of the sucker rod pump and its application in oil extraction.

   • 6.1.3 Hydraulic Turbine Driven Pumps
     How hydraulic turbine-driven pumps are used for artificial lift in oil and gas operations.

   • 6.1.4 Gas Lift Systems
     Description of gas lift systems and how they use gas injection to assist in lifting fluids.

   6.2 Air-Diaphragm Pumps

   Explanation of air-operated diaphragm pumps, which use compressed air to move fluids.

   6.3 Regenerative Turbine Pumps

   Regenerative turbine pumps, which use high-speed rotation to impart energy to fluids, suitable for high-pressure applications.

   6.4 Jet Pumps

   Overview of jet pumps and their use in applications requiring fluid movement with minimal mechanical parts.

   6.5 Slurry Pumps

   Pumps designed for handling abrasive materials and slurries in industries such as mining and construction.

   6.6 Peristaltic Pumps

   Working principles and applications of peristaltic pumps, ideal for transferring liquids that require careful handling or are prone to contamination.

Chapter 7: Compressor Fundamentals

7.1 Engineering Principles

• 7.1.1 Background
  An introduction to compressors and their applications in various industries.

• 7.1.2 Compressor Classification
  Compressors can be classified based on several criteria such as speed, structure, and operating principles.

• 7.1.3 Types of Compressors

  1. High-speed vs. Low-speed “separable” units
  2. High-speed separable compressors
  3. Low-speed integral engine compressors
  4. Rotary vane compressors
  5. Rotary screw (helical lobe) compressors
  6. Centrifugal compressors

7.2 Thermodynamic Principles of Compressors

• 7.2.1 Introduction
  An overview of the basic thermodynamic principles applied to compressors.

• 7.2.2 General “Perfect” Gas Law and Compressibility Factor
  The ideal gas law and the concept of compressibility factors in compression processes.

• 7.2.3 Gas Properties
  Properties of gases relevant to compression, including mixtures, specific gravity, and humidity.

  • 7.2.3.1 Gas Mixtures
    Understanding how different gases mix and the effects on compression.

  • 7.2.3.2 Specific Gravity
    The importance of specific gravity in compressor performance.

  • 7.2.3.3 Humidity
    The effects of humidity on the compression process.

• 7.2.4 Flow Measurements
  Methods and units used for measuring gas flow in compressors.

  • 7.2.4.1 MMSCFD (Million Standard Cubic Feet per Day)
  • 7.2.4.2 Moles per Hour (MPH)
  • 7.2.4.3 SCFM (Standard Cubic Feet per Minute)
    • 7.2.4.3.1 Mass (weight) flow
  • 7.2.4.4 ACFM (Actual Cubic Feet per Minute)
  • 7.2.4.5 Other conventions for standard conditions

• 7.2.5 Application of Compression Thermodynamic Theory
  Practical applications of thermodynamic principles in compressor operations.

  • 7.2.5.1 Introduction
    • 7.2.5.2 Isothermal Compression
    • 7.2.5.3 Isentropic (Adiabatic) Compression
      • Adiabatic Head
      • Adiabatic Discharge Temperature
      • Adiabatic Gas Horsepower
      • Adiabatic Efficiency
      • Thermodynamic Diagrams
    • 7.2.5.4 Polytropic Compression
      • Polytropic Efficiency
      • Polytropic Head
      • Polytropic Discharge Temperature
      • Polytropic Gas Horsepower
      • Thermodynamic Diagrams
    • 7.2.5.5 Miscellaneous Considerations and Clarifications

7.3 How to Select a Compressor

• 7.3.1 Preliminary Selection Considerations
  Key factors to consider when choosing a compressor.

• 7.3.2 Approximating the Number of Stages
  Methods for approximating the required number of stages in a compressor.

• 7.3.3 Approximating Brake Horsepower (BHP)
  Various methods for approximating the brake horsepower required for a compressor.

  • 7.3.3.1 GPSA “Quick Look” Approximation Curve

    • 7.3.3.1.1 Determination of the k-value (Ratio of Specific Heats)
    • 7.3.3.1.2 Calculating Total Compression Ratio (Rt)
    • 7.3.3.1.3 Determining BHP/MMSCF from the curve
    • 7.3.3.1.4 Correcting for Suction Temperature and Pressure Base
    • 7.3.3.1.5 Altitude Correction
    • 7.3.3.1.6 Specific Gravity and Low Inlet Pressure Corrections

  • 7.3.3.2 Approximate BHP Formula

  • 7.3.3.3 Selecting the Type of Compressor

• 7.3.4 Procedure for More Accurate Determination of Stages and Horsepower Detailed steps for determining the number of stages and horsepower more accurately.

  • 7.3.4.1 Determination of Gas Discharge Temperature
  • 7.3.4.2 Accurate Determination of Brake Horsepower
  • 7.3.4.3 Determination of Interstage Pressure Loss
  • 7.3.4.4 Compressor Process, Safety, and Piping Considerations

7.4 Design Considerations

• 7.4.1 Overview
  An overview of key design considerations when selecting and designing compressors.

• 7.4.2 Compressor Duty
  The role of the compressor in the system and how its duty affects design.

• 7.4.3 System Resistance and Characteristic (Performance) Curves

  • 7.4.3.1 System Resistance Curve
  • 7.4.3.2 Compressor Characteristic (Performance) Curve
  • 7.4.3.3 Gas Analysis
  • 7.4.3.4 Site Conditions
  • 7.4.3.5 Service Requirements

7.5 Application and Selection Criteria

• 7.5.1 Selection Basis
  Criteria for choosing the appropriate compressor based on application needs.

• 7.5.2 Approximate Application Ranges
  General ranges of applications for different types of compressors.

• 7.5.3 Compressor Selection Process
  Step-by-step process for selecting a compressor.

• 7.5.4 Selection Analysis

  • 7.5.4.1 Example Economic Studies
  • 7.5.4.2 Typical Dimensional Charts
  • 7.5.4.3 Packaging Considerations

7.6 Exercises

• 7.6.1 Solution
• 7.6.2 Solution

Chapter 8: Dynamic Compressors

8.1 Engineering Principles

• 8.1.1 Background
  Introduction to the principles of dynamic compressors, including their basic operation and design.

• 8.1.2 Gas Flow Path through a Centrifugal Compressor
  Description of the gas flow process from the inlet to the discharge within a centrifugal compressor.

• 8.1.3 Conversion of Velocity Energy to Pressure
  How centrifugal force is used to increase the gas pressure by converting velocity energy.

• 8.1.4 Thermodynamic Relationships
  Thermodynamic considerations and equations that govern the behavior of gases within dynamic compressors.

• 8.1.5 Component Geometry Effects on Performance
  The impact of compressor component design (e.g., impeller and casing geometry) on performance characteristics.

8.2 Major Components

• 8.2.1 Introduction
  Overview of the main components in dynamic compressors and their functions.

• 8.2.2 Housing or Case

  • 8.2.2.1 Casing Materials
    Materials used for compressor housing, focusing on strength, temperature resistance, and corrosion resistance.

  • 8.2.2.2 Nozzles
    Design and function of nozzles in directing gas flow into the compressor.

  • 8.2.2.3 Stage
    Explanation of compressor stages in multi-stage configurations.

• 8.2.3 Rotor Assembly
  Detailed description of the rotor assembly, including its role in fluid compression.

• 8.2.4 Impellers
  Function and types of impellers used in centrifugal compressors to accelerate gas.

• 8.2.5 Stationary Components

  • 8.2.5.1 Single Stage
    Stationary components used in single-stage compressors.

  • 8.2.5.2 Multistage
    Stationary components in multi-stage compressors, including stators and diffusers.

  • 8.2.5.3 Diaphragm
    Description of diaphragms used to guide airflow in multi-stage compressors.

  • 8.2.5.4 Inlet Guide Vanes
    The function of inlet guide vanes in optimizing airflow into the compressor.

• 8.2.6 Seals and Bearings

  • 8.2.6.1 Shaft Seals

    • 8.2.6.1.1 Labyrinth Seal
      Common sealing technology used in compressors to prevent leakage.
    • 8.2.6.1.2 Dry Carbon “Restrictive” Seal Rings
      Seals using carbon rings for improved leak prevention.
    • 8.2.6.1.3 Liquid Film Seals
      How liquid film seals work to reduce friction and wear.
    • 8.2.6.1.4 Mechanical Contact Seals
      Use of mechanical seals that contact rotating parts to prevent leakage.

  • 8.2.6.2 Seal Oil and Buffer Gas Systems
    Overview of seal oil systems and buffer gases to maintain proper seal function.

  • 8.2.6.3 Lube Oil System
    Design and function of lubrication systems for bearings and other moving parts.

  • 8.2.6.4 Balancing Drum (Piston)
    Use of balancing drums to reduce vibration in rotating components.

  • 8.2.6.5 Bearing System

    • 8.2.6.5.1 Thrust Bearing System
      The role of thrust bearings in preventing axial movement of the rotor.
    • 8.2.6.5.2 Flat Plate Thrust Bearing
      Description of the flat plate thrust bearing for better load distribution.
    • 8.2.6.5.3 Kingsbury Thrust Bearing
      Kingsbury bearings, designed for heavy-duty applications.
    • 8.2.6.5.4 Radial Bearings
      Function of radial bearings in supporting the rotor’s radial load.

• 8.2.7 Configurations

  • 8.2.7.1 Straight-Through
    Basic straight-through compressor configuration.
  • 8.2.7.2 Out and In
    Compressor configurations with reversed gas flow paths.
  • 8.2.7.3 Sidestream Compressor
    Design for compressors with side gas entry and exit.
  • 8.2.7.4 Double Flow
    Compressors that handle flow from two opposite directions.
  • 8.2.7.5 Back to Back
    Configuration with two compressors mounted back-to-back.
  • 8.2.7.6 Series/Parallel
    Series and parallel compressor arrangements for varying flow rates.

8.3 Compressor Performance Curves

• 8.3.1 General Considerations
  Factors influencing compressor performance, such as gas type and speed.

• 8.3.2 Impeller Performance Curves
  Performance characteristics of the compressor impeller, such as flow rate vs. pressure rise.

• 8.3.3 Affinity Laws
  Affinity laws explaining the relationship between speed, flow, and power.

• 8.3.4 Surge

  • 8.3.4.1 Description
    Overview of surge phenomena in compressors, where flow instability occurs.
  • 8.3.4.2 Flow Through Impeller and Diffuser
    How flow characteristics in the impeller and diffuser affect surge.
  • 8.3.4.3 Typical Surge Cycle
    Description of the cyclic nature of surge.
  • 8.3.4.4 Surge Frequency
    Factors that influence the frequency of surge occurrences.
  • 8.3.4.5 Design Factors Affecting Surge
    How compressor design influences susceptibility to surge.
  • 8.3.4.6 External Symptoms and Effects of Surge
    Identifying surge effects in compressor performance.
  • 8.3.4.7 Surge Control
    Strategies for preventing or managing surge.

• 8.3.5 Stonewall
  Stonewalling, a condition where the compressor reaches its maximum flow limit.

8.4 Centrifugal Compressor Selection Criteria

• 8.4.1 Application Range
  Selection of centrifugal compressors based on specific application needs.

• 8.4.2 Horsepower and Efficiency Estimates
  Estimating the power requirements and efficiency of compressors.

• 8.4.3 Head/Stage

  • 8.4.3.1 Impeller Stress Level
    Considerations for impeller stress in high-head compressors.
  • 8.4.3.2 Inlet Mach Number
    Impact of inlet Mach number on compressor design.

• 8.4.4 Stages/Casing
  Considerations for selecting the number of stages and casing type.

• 8.4.5 Discharge Temperature
  Effects of discharge temperature on compressor performance and material selection.

8.5 Centrifugal Compressor Performance Maps

• 8.5.1 General Considerations
  Overview of centrifugal compressor performance maps and their use in selection.

• 8.5.2 Head vs. Capacity Map
  Graph showing the relationship between compressor head and capacity.

• 8.5.3 Dimensional Map
  A map displaying the physical dimensions of the compressor for space planning.

• 8.5.4 Semidimensional Map
  A simplified version of the dimensional map.

8.6 System Considerations

• 8.6.1 Effect of System Changes
  How changes in system conditions affect compressor performance.

• 8.6.2 Stable Operating Speed Ranges
  Defining the stable operating range for compressor speed.

• 8.6.3 Power Margins
  Importance of maintaining adequate power margins for safe operation.

• 8.6.4 Series Operation
  Guidelines for operating compressors in series for higher pressure requirements.

• 8.6.5 Weather Protection
  Protection measures for compressors against environmental factors.

• 8.6.6 Inlet Piping Considerations
  Design considerations for inlet piping, including minimizing pressure losses.

• 8.6.7 Lube and Seal Oil Systems
  Design and maintenance of lube and seal oil systems to support compressor operation.

8.7 Materials of Construction

• 8.7.1 General Considerations
  Overview of materials used in compressor construction for durability and performance.

• 8.7.2 Sulfide Stress Cracking
  Preventing sulfide stress cracking in materials exposed to hydrogen sulfide.

• 8.7.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking
  Prevention and treatment of stress corrosion cracking in compressor components.

• 8.7.4 Hydrogen Embrittlement
  Material selection to avoid hydrogen embrittlement in compressors.

• 8.7.5 Low Temperature
  Considerations for materials used in low-temperature applications.

• 8.7.6 Impellers
  Materials and coatings used for impellers to improve performance.

• 8.7.7 Nonmetallic Seals
  Use of nonmetallic materials for seals to reduce friction and wear.

• 8.7.8 Coating Considerations
  Coating materials for improving wear resistance and corrosion protection.

8.8 Instrumentation and Control Selection

• 8.8.1 Standard Instrumentation
  Essential instrumentation for monitoring and controlling compressor performance.

• 8.8.2 Compressor Control
  Techniques for controlling compressor speed, load, and other parameters.

• 8.8.3 Control System Selection

  • 8.8.3.1 Variable Speed vs. Constant Speed
    Comparison of variable and constant-speed control systems for different applications.
  • 8.8.3.2 Parallel Operation
    Control strategies for compressors operating in parallel.

• 8.8.4 Surge Control
  Surge prevention techniques using advanced control systems.

8.9 Retrofitting and Rerating Considerations

• 8.9.1 General Considerations
  Guidelines for retrofitting and rerating existing compressor systems.

• 8.9.2 Capacity
  Adjusting compressor capacity through modifications.

• 8.9.3 Pressure
  Techniques for increasing or reducing compressor discharge pressure.

• 8.9.4 Power
  Managing power adjustments during retrofit processes.

• 8.9.5 Speed
  Modifications for altering compressor speed settings.

8.10 Axial Compressors

• 8.10.1 General Considerations
  Overview of axial compressors and their primary use in high-flow, low-pressure applications.

• 8.10.2 Performance
  Axial compressor performance characteristics.

• 8.10.3 Performance Curve
  Typical performance curve for axial compressors.

• 8.10.4 Mechanical Components
  Key components of axial compressors, including:

  • 8.10.4.1 Casings
  • 8.10.4.2 Casing Connections
  • 8.10.4.3 Stators
  • 8.10.4.4 Bearings
  • 8.10.4.5 Blades and Diffuser
  • 8.10.4.6 Rotor

8.11 Foundations

• 8.11.1 General Considerations
  Overview of foundation design for dynamic compressors.

• 8.11.1.1 Foundation Mounting
  Techniques for securely mounting compressors.

• 8.11.1.2 Design Basis for Rotating Compressors
  Structural considerations for compressors that rotate at high speeds.

• 8.11.2 Dynamic Forces
  Understanding and managing dynamic forces on compressor foundations.

• 8.11.3 Other Considerations
  Additional foundation considerations for compressor systems.

8.12 Centrifugal Compressor Performance

8.13 Exercises

• Questions 10-13
• Questions 16 and 17

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Chapter 9: Reciprocating Compressors

9.1 Engineering Principles

• 9.1.1 General Considerations
  Overview of the engineering principles behind reciprocating compressors.

• 9.1.2 Compression Cycle
  Description of the compression cycle and its impact on performance.

• 9.1.3 Volumetric Efficiency

  • 9.1.3.1 Corrections to Volumetric Efficiency for Gas Characteristics
    Adjusting for gas properties in volumetric efficiency calculations.
  • 9.1.3.2 Mechanical Corrections
    Correcting for mechanical losses in compressor efficiency.
  • 9.1.3.3 Applications and Limitations
    Where volumetric efficiency is most relevant and its limitations.
  • 9.1.3.4 Actual Inlet Flow
    Estimating the actual flow at the compressor’s inlet.

• 9.1.4 Compression Ratios
  Importance of compression ratio in reciprocating compressors.

• 9.1.5 Discharge Temperature
  Managing discharge temperature during compression.

• 9.1.6 Capacity
  Estimating compressor capacity based on design parameters.

• 9.1.7 Piston Displacement
  Piston displacement and its effect on compressor capacity.

• 9.1.8 Compressor Clearance
  The role of clearance in efficiency and power requirements.

• 9.1.9 Power
  Estimating the power requirements for reciprocating compressors.

• 9.1.10 Number of Stages

  • 9.1.10.1 Discharge Temperature
  • 9.1.10.2 Rod Loading
  • 9.1.10.3 Existence of a Fixed Sidestream Pressure Level
  • 9.1.10.4 Allowable Working Pressure
  • 9.1.10.5 Procedure for Determining the Number of Stages

9.2 Compressor Types

9.3 Machine Components

• 9.3.1 General Considerations
  Overview of machine components in reciprocating compressors.

• 9.3.2 Frame

  • 9.3.2.1 Balanced Opposed Type
  • 9.3.2.2 Integral Type

• 9.3.3 Cylinder

  • 9.3.3.1 Overview
  • 9.3.3.2 Cylinder Materials
  • 9.3.3.3 Cylinder Arrangements and Staging

Chapter 10: Application of Compression Theory and Practical Solutions

10.1 Overview

• 10.1.1 Process Design Data
  Considerations related to process design data in compression systems.

• 10.1.2 Choosing High Speed vs. Low Speed
  Factors in selecting between high-speed and low-speed compressors.

• 10.1.3 Process Considerations
  Key considerations when applying compression in various processes.

• 10.1.4 Evaluating Alternatives
  Approaches for evaluating different compressor solutions.

10.2 Design Considerations

• 10.2.1 General Considerations
  General principles in designing compression systems.

• 10.2.2 Performance Maps
  The use of performance maps in designing compressors and selecting their operating conditions.

10.3 Adding Clearance to Multistage Compressors

Understanding the impact of clearance on multistage compressors and how it affects performance.

10.4 Effects of Speed

How compressor speed influences performance, efficiency, and operational characteristics.

10.5 Multistage Compressors

Design and application considerations for multistage compressors.

10.6 Determination of Safety Device Set Points

Guidelines for setting safety device thresholds in compression systems.

10.7 Determination of Capacity from P-V Diagram

Using pressure-volume (P-V) diagrams to determine compressor capacity.

10.8 Compressor Suction and Discharge Line Sizing

Factors to consider when sizing suction and discharge lines for compressors.

10.9 Pulsation Bottles

The role and design considerations of pulsation bottles in compression systems.

10.10 Exercises

Practical exercises related to the topics discussed in the chapter.

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Chapter 11: Rotary Compressors

11.1 Engineering Principles

• 11.1.1 Background
  An introduction to rotary compressors and their fundamental principles.

• 11.1.2 Arrangements
  Different configurations and arrangements of rotary compressors.

• 11.1.3 Applications
  Key applications and uses of rotary compressors in various industries.

11.2 Screw Compressors

• 11.2.1 Dry Screw (Oil-Free Screw) vs. Oil-Flooded Screw
  A comparison of oil-free and oil-flooded screw compressors.

• 11.2.2 Dry Screw (Oil-Free Screw) Type vs. Reciprocating Compressors
  Comparing the oil-free screw compressor to reciprocating compressors.

• 11.2.3 Dry Screw (Oil-Free Screw) Type vs. Centrifugal Compressors
  A comparison between oil-free screw compressors and centrifugal compressors.

• 11.2.4 Application Ranges and Selection
  Criteria for selecting dry screw compressors based on their application range.

11.3 Liquid-Ring Rotary Compressors

Overview of liquid-ring rotary compressors and their uses.

11.4 Sliding Vane Compressors

Explanation of sliding vane compressors and their applications.

11.5 Straight-Lobe Compressors

Overview of straight-lobe compressors and their operational features.

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Chapter 12: Overview of Commonly Used Drivers

12.1 General Considerations

A general overview of factors to consider when selecting drivers for compressors.

12.2 Driver Categories

• 12.2.1 Introduction
  A brief introduction to the different categories of drivers.

• 12.2.2 Electric Motors
  Overview of various types of electric motors used to drive compressors.

  • 12.2.2.1 Induction Motors

    • 12.2.2.1.1 Fractional Horsepower Motors (Universal Motors)
    • 12.2.2.1.2 Single-Phase Motors
    • 12.2.2.1.3 Three-Phase Motors (1 to 250 hp)
    • 12.2.2.1.4 Three-Phase Motors (Larger than 250 hp)

  • 12.2.2.2 AC Synchronous Motors

  • 12.2.2.3 DC Motors

• 12.2.3 Industry Standards for Motors and Generators
  The standards and regulations for motors and generators in the industry.

• 12.2.4 Mechanical Drivers
  Types of mechanical drivers for compressors.

  • 12.2.4.1 Internal Combustion Engines (I/C)

  • 12.2.4.2 Combustion Gas Turbines (CGTs)

    • 12.2.4.2.1 Industrial Gas Turbines
    • 12.2.4.2.2 Aero-Derivative Gas Turbines
    • 12.2.4.2.3 Small Industrial Gas Turbines
    • 12.2.4.2.4 Hybrid Gas Turbines

  • 12.2.4.3 Steam Turbines

  • 12.2.4.4 Expansion Turbines

• 12.2.5 Power Transmission Devices
  Devices used to transmit power from the driver to the compressor.

  • 12.2.5.1 Gear Drives
  • 12.2.5.2 Belt Drives

12.3 Application and Selection Criteria: Driver Categories

• 12.3.1 Overview
  General overview of the selection process for driver categories.

• 12.3.2 General Selection Process
  Steps in the process of selecting drivers for compressors.

• 12.3.3 Summary of Selection Criteria
  Key factors in the selection of drivers for compressors.

• 12.3.4 Economics
  Economic factors to consider when selecting drivers.

  • 12.3.4.1 Capital Costs

    • 12.3.4.1.1 Equipment Purchase Price
      • Electric Motors
      • Steam Turbines
      • Reciprocating Engines
      • Gas Turbines

  • 12.3.4.2 Installation Costs

  • 12.3.4.3 Operating Expenses

  • 12.3.4.4 Utility Costs

  • 12.3.4.5 Economic Analysis Methods

  • 12.3.4.6 Comparative Cost Method

  • 12.3.4.7 Rate-of-Return Analysis

• 12.3.5 Reliability
  Factors influencing the reliability of drivers.

  • 12.3.5.1 Service Criticality
  • 12.3.5.2 Availability of Reliable Fuel and Power
  • 12.3.5.3 Relative Equipment Reliability

• 12.3.6 Operability
  Aspects that affect the operability of drivers.

  • 12.3.6.1 Driver Operating Speed
  • 12.3.6.2 Speed Control
  • 12.3.6.3 Remote Starting and Stopping
  • 12.3.6.4 Availability of Skilled Operating and Maintenance Personnel
  • 12.3.6.5 Availability of Spare Parts
  • 12.3.6.6 Sparing Philosophy

• 12.3.7 Facility Capabilities and Restrictions
  How facility conditions affect driver selection.

  • 12.3.7.1 Energy Sources
  • 12.3.7.2 Facility Energy Balance
  • 12.3.7.3 Future Energy Needs
  • 12.3.7.4 Cooling Water Availability
  • 12.3.7.5 Space Limitations
  • 12.3.7.6 Environmental Restrictions
  • 12.3.7.7 Operation and Maintenance Preference
  • 12.3.7.8 Vibration

12.4 Typical Applications

• 12.4.1 Application Tables
  A guide to typical applications for various drivers.

• 12.4.2 Electric Motors
  Applications of electric motors in compressor systems.

  • 12.4.2.1 Induction Motors
  • 12.4.2.2 Synchronous Motors

• 12.4.3 Steam Turbines
  Different types of steam turbines and their applications.

  • 12.4.3.1 Backpressure or Noncondensing Turbines
  • 12.4.3.2 Condensing Turbines
  • 12.4.3.3 Multiple Extraction and Admission Turbines

• 12.4.4 Gas Turbines
  Applications of gas turbines for driving compressors.

• 12.4.5 Reciprocating Engines
  Application of reciprocating engines in compressor systems.

12.5 Packaging

• 12.5.1 Purpose
  The purpose of packaging drivers and compressors together.

• 12.5.2 Modular Construction
  Benefits of modular construction for compressor packages.

• 12.5.3 Advantages and Disadvantages
  Pros and cons of using packaged systems.

12.6 Foundations

• 12.6.1 Purpose
  The role of foundations in supporting compressor systems.

• 12.6.2 Dynamic Forces of Rotating Machines
  Considerations for dynamic forces generated by rotating machinery.

  • 12.6.2.1 General Considerations
  • 12.6.2.2 Dynamic Forces
  • 12.6.2.3 Vibration Limit Converted to Dynamic Force
  • 12.6.2.4 Other Considerations

• 12.6.3 Unbalanced Forces and Moments – Reciprocating Drivers or Drivers for Reciprocating Compressors
  Special considerations for handling unbalanced forces in reciprocating compressors.

  • 12.6.3.1 General Considerations
  • 12.6.3.2 Recommendations

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